The increased activity of these transcription factors is associated with upregulation of vascular adhesion molecules-1 (VCAM-1), cytokines such as interleukin-1beta (IL-1??) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-??) and chemokines including monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1 and interleukin (IL)-8 in the endothelium [34].