In addition, the role of immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies in children with SM has been much less explored [9,12], although reduced IgM responses have been observed in adults with CM [13,14].In addition to antibodies, cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-12, interferon (IFN)-?? and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) have been shown to be involved in the control of P. falciparum infection [15-17].